Socioeconomic status and obesity in adult populations of developing countries: a review.

PubWeight™: 6.65‹?› | Rank: Top 1%

🔗 View Article (PMC 2623095)

Published in Bull World Health Organ on January 05, 2005

Authors

Carlos A Monteiro1, Erly C Moura, Wolney L Conde, Barry M Popkin

Author Affiliations

1: Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, and Center for Epidemiological Studies in Health and Nutrition, Avenue Dr. Arnaldo 715, São Paulo 01246-904, Brazil. carlosam@usp.br

Articles citing this

(truncated to the top 100)

National, regional, and global trends in body-mass index since 1980: systematic analysis of health examination surveys and epidemiological studies with 960 country-years and 9·1 million participants. Lancet (2011) 24.73

Global nutrition transition and the pandemic of obesity in developing countries. Nutr Rev (2012) 8.31

Rethinking the "diseases of affluence" paradigm: global patterns of nutritional risks in relation to economic development. PLoS Med (2005) 4.64

National, regional, and global trends in adult overweight and obesity prevalences. Popul Health Metr (2012) 4.13

Uneven dietary development: linking the policies and processes of globalization with the nutrition transition, obesity and diet-related chronic diseases. Global Health (2006) 3.67

Growing epidemic of coronary heart disease in low- and middle-income countries. Curr Probl Cardiol (2010) 3.23

Global obesity: trends, risk factors and policy implications. Nat Rev Endocrinol (2012) 3.09

Socioeconomic Disparities in Health Behaviors. Annu Rev Sociol (2010) 2.99

Obesity and socioeconomic status in developing countries: a systematic review. Obes Rev (2012) 2.88

Income-specific trends in obesity in Brazil: 1975-2003. Am J Public Health (2007) 2.82

Ten putative contributors to the obesity epidemic. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr (2009) 2.71

Obesity and cardio-metabolic risk factors in urban adults of Benin: relationship with socio-economic status, urbanisation, and lifestyle patterns. BMC Public Health (2008) 2.33

Weight of nations: a socioeconomic analysis of women in low- to middle-income countries. Am J Clin Nutr (2010) 2.33

Socioeconomic status and cardiovascular disease: risks and implications for care. Nat Rev Cardiol (2009) 2.25

The female-male disparity in obesity prevalence among black American young adults: contributions of sociodemographic characteristics of the childhood family. Am J Clin Nutr (2009) 2.24

Will China's nutrition transition overwhelm its health care system and slow economic growth? Health Aff (Millwood) (2008) 2.15

The global childhood obesity epidemic and the association between socio-economic status and childhood obesity. Int Rev Psychiatry (2012) 2.06

Cross-national comparisons of time trends in overweight inequality by socioeconomic status among women using repeated cross-sectional surveys from 37 developing countries, 1989-2007. Am J Epidemiol (2011) 2.04

Overweight and obesity in eastern mediterranean region: prevalence and possible causes. J Obes (2011) 1.95

Do burdens of underweight and overweight coexist among lower socioeconomic groups in India? Am J Clin Nutr (2009) 1.74

Obesity, hunger, and agriculture: the damaging role of subsidies. BMJ (2005) 1.65

Correlates of obesity and body image in Colombian women. J Womens Health (Larchmt) (2009) 1.60

Socio-economic status and body mass index in low-income Mexican adults. Soc Sci Med (2007) 1.54

Global gender disparities in obesity: a review. Adv Nutr (2012) 1.54

A cross-sectional study of vascular risk factors in a rural South African population: data from the Southern African Stroke Prevention Initiative (SASPI). BMC Public Health (2007) 1.53

Genetic and environmental contributions to weight, height, and BMI from birth to 19 years of age: an international study of over 12,000 twin pairs. PLoS One (2012) 1.51

Globalization and social determinants of health: Introduction and methodological background (part 1 of 3). Global Health (2007) 1.45

Hypertension and obesity in adults living in a high HIV prevalence rural area in South Africa. PLoS One (2012) 1.41

Effects of socioeconomic change from birth to early adulthood on height and overweight. Int J Epidemiol (2006) 1.39

New dynamics in global obesity facing low- and middle-income countries. Obes Rev (2013) 1.39

Prevalence and risk factors associated with nutrition-related noncommunicable diseases in the Eastern Mediterranean region. Int J Gen Med (2012) 1.39

A systematic policy approach to changing the food system and physical activity environments to prevent obesity. Aust New Zealand Health Policy (2008) 1.35

Rising burden of obesity in Asia. J Obes (2010) 1.33

Surprising SES Gradients in mortality, health, and biomarkers in a Latin American population of adults. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci (2009) 1.33

Social patterning of chronic disease risk factors in a Latin American city. J Urban Health (2008) 1.32

Contemporary nutritional transition: determinants of diet and its impact on body composition. Proc Nutr Soc (2010) 1.28

Place of birth, duration of residence, neighborhood immigrant composition and body mass index in New York City. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act (2008) 1.24

Associations between multiple indicators of socioeconomic status and obesity in young adult Filipinos vary by gender, urbanicity, and indicator used. J Nutr (2009) 1.23

Big boys and little girls: gender, acculturation, and weight among young children of immigrants. J Health Soc Behav (2010) 1.19

Modifiable socio-behavioural factors associated with overweight and hypertension among persons aged 35 to 60 years in eastern Uganda. PLoS One (2012) 1.17

Prevalence of obesity and its associated factors in Aleppo, Syria. Prev Control (2006) 1.17

Socioeconomic inequalities in the use of outpatient services in Brazil according to health care need: evidence from the World Health Survey. BMC Health Serv Res (2010) 1.15

Synthesis and implications: China's nutrition transition in the context of changes across other low- and middle-income countries. Obes Rev (2014) 1.13

Obesity and disability: relation among older adults living in Latin America and the Caribbean. Am J Epidemiol (2010) 1.12

Socioeconomic position and overweight among adolescents: data from birth cohort studies in Brazil and the UK. BMC Public Health (2009) 1.11

Obesity, SES, and economic development: a test of the reversal hypothesis. Soc Sci Med (2012) 1.10

Sugar-sweetened beverage taxes in Brazil. Am J Public Health (2011) 1.10

Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of lifestyle interventions on physical activity and eating habits in persons with severe mental disorders: a systematic review. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act (2011) 1.08

Changes of overweight and obesity in the adult Swiss population according to educational level, from 1992 to 2007. BMC Public Health (2010) 1.07

Obesity prevalence in Nepal: public health challenges in a low-income nation during an alarming worldwide trend. Int J Environ Res Public Health (2010) 1.06

[Nutritional evaluation follow-up of the 1982 birth cohort, Pelotas, Southern Brazil]. Rev Saude Publica (2008) 1.06

Inequalities in body mass index and smoking behavior in 70 countries: evidence for a social transition in chronic disease risk. Am J Epidemiol (2012) 1.05

Endothelial dysfunction and preeclampsia: role of oxidative stress. Front Physiol (2014) 1.04

Lifecourse socioeconomic trajectories and C-reactive protein levels in young adults: findings from a Brazilian birth cohort. Soc Sci Med (2010) 1.01

Global differences between women and men in the prevalence of obesity: is there an association with gender inequality? Eur J Clin Nutr (2014) 0.99

Prevalence of obesity and correlations with lifestyle and dietary factors in Chinese men. Obesity (Silver Spring) (2008) 0.99

Nutritional transition in children under five years and women of reproductive age: a 15-years trend analysis in Peru. PLoS One (2014) 0.98

Iranian Female Adolescent's Views on Unhealthy Snacks Consumption: A Qualitative Study. Iran J Public Health (2010) 0.95

Socioeconomic inequalities in adult obesity prevalence in South Africa: a decomposition analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health (2014) 0.94

Nutrition transition, food retailing and health equity in Thailand. Australas epidemiol (2010) 0.93

The Latin American Consortium of Studies in Obesity (LASO). Obes Rev (2009) 0.93

Risk factors for non-communicable diseases in rural Uganda: a pilot surveillance project among diabetes patients at a referral hospital clinic. Pan Afr Med J (2011) 0.93

Prevalence and trends of obesity and association with socioeconomic status in Thai adults: National Health Examination Surveys, 1991-2009. J Obes (2014) 0.93

Does global obesity represent a global public health challenge? Am J Clin Nutr (2010) 0.92

Association between socioeconomic status and overweight and obesity among Inuit adults: International Polar Year Inuit Health Survey, 2007-2008. Int J Circumpolar Health (2012) 0.91

Nutritional status and socioeconomic change among Toba and Wichí populations of the Argentinean Chaco. Econ Hum Biol (2009) 0.90

Global burden of double malnutrition: has anyone seen it? PLoS One (2011) 0.89

Incidence of type 2 diabetes by place of birth in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). J Immigr Minor Health (2013) 0.89

Socio-economic position and adiposity among children and their parents in the Republic of Belarus. Eur J Public Health (2010) 0.89

20-year trends in Filipino women's weight reflect substantial secular and age effects. J Nutr (2011) 0.88

The prevalence and social patterning of chronic diseases among older people in a population undergoing health transition. A 10/66 Group cross-sectional population-based survey in the Dominican Republic. BMC Public Health (2010) 0.88

Height, its components, and cardiovascular risk among older Chinese: a cross-sectional analysis of the Guangzhou Biobank Cohort Study. Am J Public Health (2007) 0.88

Differing patterns of overweight and obesity among black men and women in Cape Town: the CRIBSA study. PLoS One (2014) 0.87

Gender and socioeconomic disparities in BMI trajectories in the Seychelles: a cohort analysis based on serial population-based surveys. BMC Public Health (2011) 0.87

Systematic development of a text-driven and a video-driven web-based computer-tailored obesity prevention intervention. BMC Public Health (2013) 0.86

Prevalence of childhood obesity and overweight in Bangladesh: findings from a countrywide epidemiological study. BMC Pediatr (2014) 0.86

Overweight and Obesity among Palestinian Adults: Analyses of the Anthropometric Data from the First National Health and Nutrition Survey (1999-2000). J Obes (2012) 0.86

Global patterns in overweight among children and mothers in less developed countries. Public Health Nutr (2012) 0.85

Demographic, socioeconomic and educational aspects of obesity in an adult population. J Natl Med Assoc (2006) 0.85

Dual burden of body weight among Iranian children and adolescents in 2003 and 2010: the CASPIAN-III study. Arch Med Sci (2014) 0.85

Socioeconomic disparities and the familial coexistence of child stunting and maternal overweight in Guatemala. Econ Hum Biol (2011) 0.85

Prevalence and predictors of physical inactivity in a slum in Brazil. J Urban Health (2011) 0.84

Body mass index and comorbidities in adult severe asthmatics. Biomed Res Int (2014) 0.83

Contribution of socioeconomic status, stature and birth weight to obesity in Sub-Saharan Africa: cross-sectional data from primary school-age children in Cameroon. BMC Public Health (2014) 0.83

Contribution of socioeconomic factors and health care access to the awareness and treatment of diabetes and hypertension among older Mexican adults. Salud Publica Mex (2015) 0.83

The impact of economic, political and social globalization on overweight and obesity in the 56 low and middle income countries. Soc Sci Med (2015) 0.83

Determinants of Obesity and Associated Population Attributability, South Africa: Empirical Evidence from a National Panel Survey, 2008-2012. PLoS One (2015) 0.82

The prevalence of adulthood overweight and obesity in Tehran: findings from Urban HEART-2 study. Med J Islam Repub Iran (2015) 0.82

Birth by caesarean section and prevalence of risk factors for non-communicable diseases in young adults: a birth cohort study. PLoS One (2013) 0.82

Acupuncture promotes white adipose tissue browning by inducing UCP1 expression on DIO mice. BMC Complement Altern Med (2014) 0.82

Prevalence of overweight and obesity and their associations with socioeconomic status in a rural Han Chinese adult population. PLoS One (2013) 0.81

The spatial distribution of overweight and obesity among a birth cohort of young adult Filipinos (Cebu Philippines, 2005): an application of the Kulldorff spatial scan statistic. Nutr Diabetes (2013) 0.81

Importation, SES-selective Acculturation, and the Weaker SES-health Gradients of Mexican Immigrants in the United States. Soc Sci J (2012) 0.81

Double burden of malnutrition: increasing overweight and obesity and stall underweight trends among Ghanaian women. BMC Public Health (2015) 0.81

Residential mobility, socioeconomic context and body mass index in a cohort of urban South African adolescents. Health Place (2012) 0.81

Social and cultural factors underlying generational differences in overweight: a cross-sectional study among ethnic minorities in the Netherlands. BMC Public Health (2011) 0.80

Trends in overweight by educational level in 33 low- and middle-income countries: the role of parity, age at first birth and breastfeeding. Obes Rev (2013) 0.80

Fasting substrate oxidation in relation to habitual dietary fat intake and insulin resistance in non-diabetic women: a case for metabolic flexibility? Nutr Metab (Lond) (2013) 0.80

The effect of gender and social capital on the dual burden of malnutrition: a multilevel study in Indonesia. PLoS One (2014) 0.80

An increasing socioeconomic gap in childhood overweight and obesity in China. Am J Public Health (2013) 0.80

Articles by these authors

Inequality in the built environment underlies key health disparities in physical activity and obesity. Pediatrics (2006) 10.10

Consumption of high-fructose corn syrup in beverages may play a role in the epidemic of obesity. Am J Clin Nutr (2004) 8.64

Sugar-sweetened beverages and risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care (2010) 8.52

The public health and economic benefits of taxing sugar-sweetened beverages. N Engl J Med (2009) 7.48

Sugar-sweetened beverages, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease risk. Circulation (2010) 6.86

Changes in beverage intake between 1977 and 2001. Am J Prev Med (2004) 5.58

Patterns and trends in food portion sizes, 1977-1998. JAMA (2003) 5.14

Trends of obesity and underweight in older children and adolescents in the United States, Brazil, China, and Russia. Am J Clin Nutr (2002) 4.68

Acculturation and overweight-related behaviors among Hispanic immigrants to the US: the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Soc Sci Med (2003) 4.61

Fast food restaurants and food stores: longitudinal associations with diet in young to middle-aged adults: the CARDIA study. Arch Intern Med (2011) 4.40

Five-year obesity incidence in the transition period between adolescence and adulthood: the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Am J Clin Nutr (2004) 4.12

Trends in energy intake in U.S. between 1977 and 1996: similar shifts seen across age groups. Obes Res (2002) 4.09

Overweight exceeds underweight among women in most developing countries. Am J Clin Nutr (2005) 3.93

Longitudinal physical activity and sedentary behavior trends: adolescence to adulthood. Am J Prev Med (2004) 3.52

Differential associations of fast food and restaurant food consumption with 3-y change in body mass index: the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study. Am J Clin Nutr (2007) 3.42

Association of adolescent obesity with risk of severe obesity in adulthood. JAMA (2010) 3.10

Nonnutritive sweetener consumption in humans: effects on appetite and food intake and their putative mechanisms. Am J Clin Nutr (2008) 3.02

China's transition: the effect of rapid urbanization on adult occupational physical activity. Soc Sci Med (2006) 2.99

Population approaches to improve diet, physical activity, and smoking habits: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation (2012) 2.95

Rapid income growth adversely affects diet quality in China--particularly for the poor! Soc Sci Med (2004) 2.94

Trends in food locations and sources among adolescents and young adults. Prev Med (2002) 2.93

Shifts in patterns and consumption of beverages between 1965 and 2002. Obesity (Silver Spring) (2007) 2.91

The relationship of ethnicity, socioeconomic factors, and overweight in US adolescents. Obes Res (2003) 2.84

Validation of a GIS facilities database: quantification and implications of error. Ann Epidemiol (2008) 2.84

Income-specific trends in obesity in Brazil: 1975-2003. Am J Public Health (2007) 2.82

Trends in snacking among U.S. children. Health Aff (Millwood) (2010) 2.79

Trends in energy intake among US children by eating location and food source, 1977-2006. J Am Diet Assoc (2011) 2.76

The road to obesity or the path to prevention: motorized transportation and obesity in China. Obes Res (2002) 2.73

Why have physical activity levels declined among Chinese adults? Findings from the 1991-2006 China Health and Nutrition Surveys. Soc Sci Med (2009) 2.70

The natural history of the development of obesity in a cohort of young U.S. adults between 1981 and 1998. Ann Intern Med (2002) 2.66

Ethnic differences in the association between body mass index and hypertension. Am J Epidemiol (2002) 2.63

Snacking increased among U.S. adults between 1977 and 2006. J Nutr (2009) 2.62

Built and social environments associations with adolescent overweight and activity. Am J Prev Med (2006) 2.55

A new stage of the nutrition transition in China. Public Health Nutr (2002) 2.52

Ethnic differences in physical activity and inactivity patterns and overweight status. Obes Res (2002) 2.50

Energy intake from beverages is increasing among Mexican adolescents and adults. J Nutr (2008) 2.49

Food price and diet and health outcomes: 20 years of the CARDIA Study. Arch Intern Med (2010) 2.46

Food companies' calorie-reduction pledges to improve U.S. diet. Am J Prev Med (2013) 2.43

Understanding community context and adult health changes in China: development of an urbanicity scale. Soc Sci Med (2010) 2.36

[Beverage consumption for a healthy life: recommendations for the Mexican population]. Salud Publica Mex (2008) 2.20

Patterns and trends of beverage consumption among children and adults in Great Britain, 1986-2009. Br J Nutr (2011) 2.20

Prospective study on nutrition transition in China. Nutr Rev (2009) 2.18

Are child eating patterns being transformed globally? Obes Res (2005) 2.16

Monitoring foods and nutrients sold and consumed in the United States: dynamics and challenges. J Acad Nutr Diet (2012) 2.16

Trends in food and beverage sources among US children and adolescents: 1989-2010. J Acad Nutr Diet (2013) 2.07

Cohort profile: the Cebu longitudinal health and nutrition survey. Int J Epidemiol (2010) 2.05

Cross-national comparisons of time trends in overweight inequality by socioeconomic status among women using repeated cross-sectional surveys from 37 developing countries, 1989-2007. Am J Epidemiol (2011) 2.04

Fifteen-year longitudinal trends in walking patterns and their impact on weight change. Am J Clin Nutr (2008) 2.01

Replacing sweetened caloric beverages with drinking water is associated with lower energy intake. Obesity (Silver Spring) (2007) 1.96

The Diet Quality Index-International (DQI-I) provides an effective tool for cross-national comparison of diet quality as illustrated by China and the United States. J Nutr (2003) 1.86

Dietary fat and obesity: a review of animal, clinical and epidemiological studies. Physiol Behav (2004) 1.83

Eighteen year weight trajectories and metabolic markers of diabetes in modernising China. Diabetologia (2014) 1.81

Energy density, portion size, and eating occasions: contributions to increased energy intake in the United States, 1977-2006. PLoS Med (2011) 1.76

High-fructose corn syrup: is this what's for dinner? Am J Clin Nutr (2008) 1.75

Drinking water is associated with weight loss in overweight dieting women independent of diet and activity. Obesity (Silver Spring) (2008) 1.71

Objective physical activity of filipino youth stratified for commuting mode to school. Med Sci Sports Exerc (2003) 1.70

Is obesity replacing or adding to undernutrition? Evidence from different social classes in Brazil. Public Health Nutr (2002) 1.70

Impact of water intake on energy intake and weight status: a systematic review. Nutr Rev (2010) 1.70

Food portion patterns and trends among U.S. children and the relationship to total eating occasion size, 1977-2006. J Nutr (2011) 1.67

Adolescent physical activity and sedentary behavior: patterning and long-term maintenance. Am J Prev Med (2005) 1.66

Drinking caloric beverages increases the risk of adverse cardiometabolic outcomes in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study. Am J Clin Nutr (2010) 1.62

Weekend eating in the United States is linked with greater energy, fat, and alcohol intake. Obes Res (2003) 1.62

Use of caloric and noncaloric sweeteners in US consumer packaged foods, 2005-2009. J Acad Nutr Diet (2012) 1.61

Adults with healthier dietary patterns have healthier beverage patterns. J Nutr (2006) 1.58

Environment and Physical Activity Dynamics: The Role of Residential Self-selection. Psychol Sport Exerc (2011) 1.56

Trends in US home food preparation and consumption: analysis of national nutrition surveys and time use studies from 1965-1966 to 2007-2008. Nutr J (2013) 1.54

A descriptive epidemiology of leisure-time physical activity in Brazil, 1996-1997. Rev Panam Salud Publica (2003) 1.52

Dietary sugar and body weight: have we reached a crisis in the epidemic of obesity and diabetes?: health be damned! Pour on the sugar. Diabetes Care (2014) 1.52

Caloric beverage consumption patterns in Mexican children. Nutr J (2010) 1.50

Understanding the patterns and trends of sodium intake, potassium intake, and sodium to potassium ratio and their effect on hypertension in China. Am J Clin Nutr (2013) 1.50

Beverage patterns and trends among school-aged children in the US, 1989-2008. Nutr J (2011) 1.49

What neighborhood area captures built environment features related to adolescent physical activity? Health Place (2010) 1.47

Birthplace is associated with more adverse dietary profiles for US-born than for foreign-born Latino adults. J Nutr (2008) 1.45

Regular consumption from fast food establishments relative to other restaurants is differentially associated with metabolic outcomes in young adults. J Nutr (2009) 1.44

Food acculturation drives dietary differences among Mexicans, Mexican Americans, and Non-Hispanic Whites. J Nutr (2011) 1.43

Screen time and physical activity during adolescence: longitudinal effects on obesity in young adulthood. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act (2007) 1.43

Alternative methods of accounting for underreporting and overreporting when measuring dietary intake-obesity relations. Am J Epidemiol (2011) 1.41

White Rice Intake Varies in Its Association with Metabolic Markers of Diabetes and Dyslipidemia Across Region among Chinese Adults. Ann Nutr Metab (2015) 1.40

The impact of socio-economic factors on functional status decline among community-dwelling older adults in China. Soc Sci Med (2004) 1.39

Tracking of dietary intake patterns of Chinese from childhood to adolescence over a six-year follow-up period. J Nutr (2002) 1.39

Contrasting socioeconomic profiles related to healthier lifestyles in China and the United States. Am J Epidemiol (2004) 1.39

[Drink consumption for a healthy life: recommendations for the general population in Mexico]. Gac Med Mex (2008) 1.38

The unique aspects of the nutrition transition in South Korea: the retention of healthful elements in their traditional diet. Public Health Nutr (2002) 1.37

The burden of disease from undernutrition and overnutrition in countries undergoing rapid nutrition transition: a view from Brazil. Am J Public Health (2004) 1.36

What Brazil is doing to promote healthy diets and active lifestyles. Public Health Nutr (2002) 1.36

Dietary patterns matter: diet beverages and cardiometabolic risks in the longitudinal Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study. Am J Clin Nutr (2012) 1.34

Retirement and physical activity: analyses by occupation and wealth. Am J Prev Med (2009) 1.28

Increased portion sizes from energy-dense foods affect total energy intake at eating occasions in US children and adolescents: patterns and trends by age group and sociodemographic characteristics, 1977-2006. Am J Clin Nutr (2011) 1.28

Turning point for US diets? Recessionary effects or behavioral shifts in foods purchased and consumed. Am J Clin Nutr (2014) 1.28

Lifespan nutrition and changing socio-economic conditions in China. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr (2007) 1.27

Diet quality and weight gain among black and white young adults: the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study (1985-2005). Am J Clin Nutr (2010) 1.26

Trends in Chinese snacking behaviors and patterns and the social-demographic role between 1991 and 2009. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr (2012) 1.26

Obesity affects nursing-care facility admission among whites but not blacks. Obes Res (2002) 1.25

Understanding the role of mediating risk factors and proxy effects in the association between socio-economic status and untreated hypertension. Soc Sci Med (2004) 1.25

Neighborhood fast food restaurants and fast food consumption: a national study. BMC Public Health (2011) 1.24

The association between body mass index and hypertension is different between East and Southeast Asians. Am J Clin Nutr (2009) 1.24

Associations between multiple indicators of socioeconomic status and obesity in young adult Filipinos vary by gender, urbanicity, and indicator used. J Nutr (2009) 1.23